Work Gender Differentials

Introduction

This essay explores the usefulness of the Hakim's "preference theory" (2006) in explaining work gender differentials in Singapore as it is in explaining work gender differentials in Western countries.

Hakim's preference theory states that all women living in modern affluent societies can and do make genuine, unconstrained choices with regards to family and paid work. They have a free choice about the lifestyle they want to live. Furthermore, she claims that all woman fall into three qualitatively different categories, namely Home-centered, Adaptive and Work-centered women, based on their work and family preferences. (Hakim 2006, 2000) The research focused mainly on women in Britain and the US.

The scope of work gender differentials in this essay refers to salary differences among males and females in the same job, access to higher skilled occupation, and representation in the administrative and managerial major group and more highly skilled jobs.

The Hakim's preference theory may explain certain behaviour of the younger women but may not apply to the older women in Singapore. There are also other considerations which do affect the choices Singaporean women make between work and family. These considerations covered in this essay are sociodemographic variables, women's lived experience, cultural differences, occupational segregation and the 'glass ceiling'.

Equal Opportunities in Singapore

The 'equal opportunities revolution' which Hakim's has addressed in her preference theory (Hakim 2000 cited in Hakim 2006, p. 287) is also evident in Singapore. The meritocratic government of Singapore has been successful in eliminating gender disparity across all socio-economic classes and ethnic groups. Women and men have equal access to education along with six years of free and compulsory primary education in national schools. This has helped to raise female educational level, economic status and social participation in the country. Moreover, women are gradually treated on equal terms with men in all spheres. This has aided in raising women's economic activity rate to close to 50% and to lower the pay gap between women and men to 38%. (World Trade Press, Singapore Society and Culture Complete Report, 2010, p. 26, viewed 25 July, Ebary Database)

Moreover, the government also has initiatives to increase women's participation in the workforce, such as under the NTUC Women's Development Secretariat (WDS) Back2Work with U Programme, the Secretariat also uses its 3R, Recruit, Re-adjust and Retain strategy to assist economically inactive women in getting back to the workforce through retraining and promoting work-life integration initiatives among companies and to encourage family-friendly programmes such as flexi-work arrangements and workplace health issues. (Women's Development Secretariat 2010) It aims to help women cope better with work and family in order to close up the income gap between men and women and to increase productivity in Singapore.

Women lifestyle influenced by Sociodemographic variables

Contrary to Hakim's lifestyle preference theory (2006) that Lifestyle Preference Groups apply to all women in modern affluent societies, regardless of social class, education, sub culture or age, (Johnstone and Lee 2009) states that ambitions are likely a reflection of women's lifestyle preferences and the lifestyle of young women in Australia and in other places are strongly influenced by social and structural factors. This is also evident in Singapore whereby increasing women's entry into the workforce due to equal education opportunities. The share of degree holders in the labour force almost