The Essential Characteristics of Effective Teaching

Effective teaching aims to create self-regulated learners, positive self-esteem in students and encourages learning development. To achieve these goals, special attention must be paid to the planning of each lesson, taking into consideration key aspects such as content, its link to the curriculum, meaningful objectives and assessments (Whitton, Sinclair, Barker, Nanlohy, & Nosworthy, 2004). Well prepared lessons should incorporate a variety of teaching and learning strategies that are well suited to the abilities of each student (Fetherston, 2006). In particular, the use of group work activities and effective questioning techniques offer considerable learning advantages (Fetherston, 2007). It is essential for all educators to be familiar with both cognitive and social constructivist theories and apply both approaches to all aspects of their teaching.

Lesson planning is a vital component of the learning process as it provides a coherent framework for efficient teaching (Whitton, Sinclair, Barker, Nanlohy, & Nosworthy, 2010). "A lesson plan is the planning and preparation for a lesson" (Whitton et al, 2010, p153). It details step-by-step instructions of what to teach and how (Whitton et al, 2010). Although its purpose is simple, its components are far more complex. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates the curriculum, the students, the activities and the strategies that are to take place (Whitton et al, 2010). Essential elements of a lesson plan include content, objectives, resources, timing, environment, assessment, evaluation (Whitton et al, 2010) and a formal conclusion (Fetherston, 2007). The lesson plan in Appendix One covers all these features in an organised layout that any teacher can follow.

The content and requirements of a lesson should be noted in the introduction of the plan (Whitton et al, 2010) and chosen based upon the outcomes and descriptors set out in the Curriculum by the Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA). Content must be appropriate and meaningful as to assist all students in achieving the set academic goals (Killen, 2006). Central to all lesson plans are well-constructed objectives that students will work towards (Whitton et al, 2010). More specifically, the objectives must be clearly described in the plan, showing the links to the curriculum, how the students will demonstrate understanding, the process they will use and where the lesson will be taught; while considering the abilities and needs of every participating student (Whitton et al, 2010). In Appendix One, three very specific objectives have been set for the lesson. As suggested by Marsh (2008), the teacher explains the objectives to the students and its link to the previous and new lesson. Fetherston (2006) notes that most lessons should have anywhere from two to six objectives. These objectives should state the learning that will result from completing the task rather than describing the task itself (Barry & King, 2004).

Updated resources should be used to continually stimulate the student's interest (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013). Allocation of time to each activity must be well developed (Harris, 1998) and noted in the lesson plan, allowing sufficient time to successfully carry out activities as maximise the benefits (Fetherston, 2007). In Appendix One, students move from their seats to the floor at the beginning of the lesson for a whole class discussion. They then head off in groups, still on the floor to work as a team and then back to their desks to complete their handout. By altering their environment, the teacher will constantly be regaining their attention (Kiewra, 2002).

Formative assessment is a valuable aspect of any lesson plan and can be executed at different and in all phases. It allows teachers to check that students have understood the material and offers them the knowledge needed to prepare future lessons appropriate for the students'' level of development (FOX, medwell, pouson, wary). The right assessment for each topic will allow an effective teacher to identify strengths and weaknesses of their students and the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching strategies (Ghaye, 2011). In appendix One, the teacher assesses students' comprehension throughout different stages of the lesson by using effective questioning. The teacher also asks students to extend their answers in the introduction to ensure they have really understood the material. Assessment results can also be used to provide students with achievement or improvement feedback (BOOK, 164) and to modify and guide their learning (Whitton et al, 2010).

It is imperative that adequate time has been allocated to formally conclude a lesson (Fetherston, 2007). During the conclusion in Appendix One, the lesson is being summarised through discussion and links between current and following lessons are being established. The discussion providing an opportunity for revision where the new material is being stored in their long-term memory (wooldfold and udjjas, 98). It is also in this phase that a teacher should evaluate their ability to construct a lesson, which effectively teaches every student; a process known as summative evaluation (Whitton et al, 2010). The main focus of summative evaluation is to determine if the content, resources and strategies were suitable and successful and if the set objectives were achieved (Whitton et al, 2010).

The combination of a well-planned lesson and the use of a variety of teaching and learning strategies are instrumental in ensuring learning occurs effectively (Kyriacou, 1997). There are two approaches that define teaching, being either teacher-centred or student-centred, and both offering the opportunity for students to achieve success (Killen, 2006). The teacher-centred approach also known as an expository approach, defines what the teacher does to assist learning using strategies such as explanation, narration and discussion (Whitton et al, 2010). These strategies were largely used in the introduction phase of the lesson in Appendix One to introduce the topic and to teach students how to recognise and solve a mathematical sentence as an equation.

The student-centred approach or inquiry approach calls for activities which incorporate group work, brainstorming and role playing (Whitton et al, 2010)). It is with this approach that the teacher becomes a facilitator rather than a lecturer (BOOK). An example of this is shown in Appendix One where the teacher initiates a group discussion on familiar formats and methods students could use to solve an equation, before introducing the new format and method. At this time, the students are being guided through their learning (Marsh, 2008) and constructing their own ideas by drawing on their prior knowledge (Fetherston, 2007). Class discussions and the other techniques mentioned in this paragraph are important distinctions