Martin Luther

Some have said that Martin Luther was not the first "modern" man but rather the last

"per-modern man." Discuss the foundation for such an argument and give specific

examples which would substantiate or refute this claim.

Martin Luther pushed for the reform of the Roman Catholic Church. His doctrine noted that salvation came forth from the faith of God. God alone could only grant these graces, these graces could not be earn from doing good deeds or by buying indulgence. There in lies questions of whether he was a "modern" or "per-modern man". "In the pre-modern point of view an authoritative source decides what is true; in a modern point of view the authoritative source agrees with (plausible, verifiable, or whatever) objective truth claims ." The pre-modern society beliefs of supernatural, witches, and the like as factual. Luther is said to have "believed in burning witches". Pre-modern thought also lack the use of science to explain the world around them. Luther viewed faith of God as the authoritative source to obtain his graces. This reaffirms that was "pre-modern man" side of the debate. Martin Luther is also seen as "modern" for going against the authoriative source the Rome Catholic Church. He is also credit with helping get started reformation of the church. Martin Luther should be classified as "pre-modern" with subtle hints of "modernism".

2. William J. Bouwsma paints a unique portrait of John Calvin's emergence in the Protestant

Reformation. Discuss the essential element of Bouwsma's argument including what

differentiated Calvin from previous Reformers in both philosophy and practice.

In this work, Bouwsma provides a clear and brilliantly argued analysis of Calvin's place in 16th-century European intellectual history, focusing on his thought rather than his life. Bouwsma places Calvin in the context of the

humanist rhetorical tradition

emphasizing practical, pre-professional and -scientific studies

ather than train professionals in jargon and strict practice, humanists sought to create a citizenry (sometimes including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity. Thus, they would be capable of better engaging the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of thestudia humanitatis, today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy.

, the medieval Scholastic tradition

scholasticism places a strong emphasis ondialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference, and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions.

, and the biblical scholarship of the Reformation

There are two major approaches towards Biblical studies. The first approach studies the Bible as a human creation and is also known as Biblical criticism. This approach is most prevalent in the secular academic world. In this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies.

The other approach is the study of the Bible as a religious text, where it is assumed that the Bible has a divine origin or inspiration. This approach is a branch of theology, and is also known as Biblical interpretation.

. Thus, he explains how the contradictions in Calvin's thought represented the conflicting value systems of his day. Bouwsma also provides an excellent exposition of Calvin's views on issues of church, state, and society as an attempt to confront the existing anxieties of a transitional era witnessing the collapse of certainty. Susan A. Stussy, Marian Coll. Lib., Indianapolis, Ind.

Copyright 1987 Reed Business Information, Inc. --This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.

While he inevitably insists that true creativity belongs to God alone, Calvin celebrates the

second-order powers of imagination and invention ( the mother of so many marvellous

devices ) with which God has invested the human soul

However, John Calvin a Frenchman took the liberty of creating a various values and principles for the Protestant religion such as the Protestant work ethic and predestination and "the calling". He traveled the French and Swiss countrysides and towns and cities promoting his version of Protestantism.

The Philological Argument

As a Renaissance humanist scholar one of the tools that Calvin employed was the discipline of philology or historical linguistics (Bouwsma 1988:12). Calvin's critique of the semantic distinction between dulia "veneration" and latreia "worship" in Institutes 1.11.11, 1.12.2 and 1.12.3 would seem to be one of his strongest attacks against the veneration of icons. The defenders of icons argued that they were attributing to icons "veneration", not "adoration". In response to this, Calvin resorts to a number of proof texts to demolish this claim.

humans and God are at polar opposites with regards to power and morality. God is absolutely sovereign - nothing can happen without God wanting it to happen and nothing that God wants to happen can fail to be good. God is the absolute standard of everything. Humans, on the other hand, are absolutely powerless - they cannot cause anything to happen out of their own will and desire and they especially cannot cause anything good to happen because, in addition to being powerless, they are also completely depraved and sinful.

Despite the admittedly damning comments which he makes about the

presumption and dangers of the visual arts in church, it is misleading to suggest that

Calvin had a negative attitude towards human creativity and imagination more widely.

John Calvin

John Calvin (1509-64) -- Calvin was a French theologian and reformer who fled religious persecution in France and settled in Geneva in 1536. He instituted a form of Church government in Geneva which has become known as the Presbyterian church. He insisted