Daoism: A Closer Look

Daoism: A Closer Look

Next to Confucianism, Daoism is undoubtedly the most dominant branch of Chinese philosophy. Their complementary doctrines were among the major influences behind later Chinese thought and literature. While Confucianism emphasized solemn gravity and social responsibility, Daoism preached respectability and fulfillment of the conventional duties of society. Instead of focusing on worldly and human concerns as Confucianism did, Daoism concentrated on the transcendental worlds of the spirit. These observations led to the conclusion that "Confucianism (represented) the Chinese scholar (dealing with matters of family and society) in his office or study, while Daoism (represented) the same individual (taking a respite from the demands of official life) in a private chamber or mountain retreat."

Daoism, along with Confucianism, was believed to have developed during the Warring States Period (5th-3rd centuries BC). Through this era, China was characterized with a weak central government and frequent civil wars among feudal lords of small Chinese states. Daoism, therefore, was perceived as a reaction against strict social hierarchy, chaotic violence and arbitrary laws in the states. Its philosophy promoted harmony among human beings and with nature through simplicity and calm meditation on the fundamental unity of all things in the universe.

But it was not until the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC) that the term "Daoist" - the family or school of the Dao - entered the Chinese vocabulary. Prior to the Han Dynasty, Daoism was referred to as "the teachings of the Yellow Emperor and (Lao-tzu)" and "the teachings of (Lao-tzu) and Zhuangzi." Two books were attributed only to Lao-tzu and Zhuangzi, as the Yellow Emperor was a legendary figure.

Although Lao-tzu is regarded as the founder of Daoism, his life, works and teachings have been debated about for centuries. One of these contentions was over the authorship of the Daodejing ("The Book of the Way and the Virtue"), the text that contained the central beliefs of Daoism. It is generally acknowledged that Lao-tzu was the sole writer of the Daodejing. However, contemporary scholars believe that his followers authored it. They also theorized that the Daodejing was actually in the 4th or 3rd century BC - two to three centuries after Lao-tzu's time.

There were even some speculations that Lao-tzu was possibly just a mythical character. Popular belief maintained that Lao-tzu was in fact Li Erh, a royal court official in Luoyang who was born in Henan around 570 BC. His teachings was said to have later earned him the name Lao-tzu, which meant "the old master." But according to some scholars, talented and insightful individuals probably created Lao-tzu in order to serve as the epitome of their ideas. They must have felt that other people would understand their beliefs better if they had a role model whom they could follow.

Despite the aforementioned controversies, Daoism is an established and highly complex school of thought in Chinese philosophy. Daoism is based on the Tao ("the way"), a fundamental principle that operates in both the cosmos and in human nature without interfering with them. Interference is considered to be detrimental - it is the cause of disorder and disharmony.

Daoism also taught that human nature is the personification of the Tao. Tao is simple and non-artificial in its original embodied state. Simply put, it has very little knowledge of the Self or personal desires. Human beings rarely grasp Tao in its purest essence because of the influence of culture. Daoism believed that culture prompted humans to interfere with nature to attain personal objectives.

Given that human nature is the material form of the Tao, Daoism expected all human relationships to be marked with spontaneity and noninterference. As a corollary view of human beings, the Daoist view is that humans are simply a part of nature. Interpersonal relationships were intended to be natural, plain and harmonious because in his primordial state, the human being neither had knowledge or desire. In the process, a society wherein there was no competition, conflict or government interference would emerge:

Do not exalt the worthy,

and the people will not compete.

Do not value goods that are hard to come by,

and the people will not steal.

Do not display objects of desire

and the people's minds will not be disturbed. (De Barry and Bloom 1999, 80-81)

It must be made clear, however, that Daoism was not necessarily hostile to all forms of society. Daoism is simply calling for a society wherein human nature is not sacrificed to accommodate personal interests.

In Western ethics, the concepts of good and evil are both derived from natural facts. Thus, norms were created in order to ensure that the good of the society would be prioritized over human desires. In sharp contrast, Daoism assumed that the natural state is good, harmonious and reasonable. This presupposition is likewise extended to both the world of value and the objective