Concept of Race and Ethnicity

In this essay I will attempt to analyse the concept of race in contemporary society. I will try to critically engage the subject of race in various dimensions of society including health, education, economic opportunities. To examine and understand the concept of race this essay I will also engage in the origins of this notion. I will also present the Marxist views on race and class.

Outline

Race and Ethnicity is a factor in nearly every aspect of society including health, education and politics. The origins of race concept however, are disputed. The arguments whether the concept of race is a biological, social or a political construct remains. In early discussions of human classifications the term race was not used consistently with a specific meaning (Bernasconi, 2001). Racial segregation in education, racial classification in health, contributes to issue of race being raised in society.

Race is a disruptive and damaging set of classification that is logically unjustified, but continues to be used in common discourse of modern society. Even with the lack of scientific explanation the idea is captivating and has proven as a means of identifying a group (Ross, 2006). In the past this concept has been used for slavery and genocide

Origin of concept of Race

To understand the concept of race in modern society, one must know or understand how the concept of race originated. Francois Bernier, a French physican introduced the term race into science in 1684. Race for him captured differences in skin colour, hair and facial features and value judgments were based on these differences (Bernasconi, 2001).

Around the same time Bernier wrote about "four or five species or races of men" just as when European powers were expanding their colonial powers and enforced the European notion that their social arrangements and culture (religion, moral codes) were superior than the darker colour. This notion of superiority provided a justification for exploitation of particular groups mainly African slaves and these groups were labelled inferior (Bernasconi, 2001).

The origin of race concept can be called a political construct in the 15th and16th century, capitalism period. As after Africans were enslaved, the notion of Othering began and African people were represented in a negative term/inferior by capitalists (Back and Solomos, 2001). The idea of othering still plays an important part in modern society.

Hall and Meeks (2007) argued that in contemporary society we are witnessing increasing cultural identities, social experiences and diversity that cannot be accumulated in a set of fixed transcultural or transcendental racial categories which are constantly evolving and changing.

Between the 1920s and the 1950s, the study of race relations in terms of "segregation", "immigration" and "race consciousness" occurred, introducing and opening up the field known as the sociology of race relations; these studies focused on the special contexts of race, which then become socially meaningful (Back and Solomos, 2003). The subjects of immigration, segregation and race consciousness are discussed and debated in most educational institutions and political systems.

Concept of Race in Health System

Racism affects all parts of society, even health care. Racial classification continues in medicine. Using labels like 'Asians' and 'Blacks, doctors and physicians used racial classification for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The practice of using concept of race in health has been questioned on ethical grounds but the practice continues. The benefit seen using racial labelling was, it was seen that some diseases were found in a particular population (Bhopal, 2007).

The concept of race acts as a variable in medicine to treat diseases just like gender (Bhopal 2007). The concept has its advantages and disadvantages. The first example that rises is the abuse in South Africa during Apartheid or the abuse of prisoners by Nazi physicians during the World War II.

In the 19th century, medical research was used to reinforce the inferiority of Blacks (Kreiger, 1987) and provided a "scientific" justification for slavery and economic exploitation. Many physicians and clinicians wanted to consider racial classification as a variable just as gender, although this idea drew criticism. Health problems faced by minority groups are different, have different causes and require different solutions (Bhopal, 2007). For eg. South Asian women are known to have low respiratory diseases (Bhopal, 2007).

The use of racial classification in health can be labelled positive discrimination.

Concept of Race and Education

Greenson (2008) describes the foremost concern in contemporary race and education is the so called Education Gap. The education gap basically means the variation or a vast difference in test scores or I.Q levels between most minorities such as Africans-Americans and the 'white" majority. This achievement gap between marginal groups and white majority is a challenge to most modern societies including United States (Greenson, 2008).

Greenson (2008) describes this gap due to an increasingly diverse student body, a mostly white teaching profession, and disparities in opportunities, resources, language barrier, and culture. The intelligence test research has proved that minorities and African-American are inferior in critical nature (Greenson, 2008). This was argued by scholars and was labelled as scientific racism.

Education gap existed due to an individual's abilities rather than biological/environmental influences. Debates continue to exist between various scholars whether or not, scientific racism plays a role in linking minority ability and achievement to racial inferiority. The incapability of scholars to identify the appropriate method for assessing this gap was seen unhelpful and confusing to practicing teachers (Kincheloe, Steinberg and Greeson, 1996).

These debates, education gap and the ignorance or failure of society to provide the resources or encourage people from marginal groups accrues to people dropping out rather than graduating (Greeson 2008).

Racial segregation in education persists, although tough laws have been placed in order to prevent minorities from segregating schooling. Racial separation